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Interacting with the DLR

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The Dynamic Language Runtime (DLR) is a new feature of the .NET platform. Its intended purpose is to support dynamic languages, such as Python (through IronPython) and Ruby (through IronRuby). Without DLR, the .NET Framework can’t really run dynamic languages. In addition, DLR provides interoperability between dynamic languages, the .NET Framework, and static languages such as C# and Visual Basic.NET. Without DLR, dynamic and static languages can’t communicate. In order to meet these goals, DLR must provide basic functionality that marshals data and code calls between the dynamic and static environments. This functionality comes in a number of forms that are discussed in this chapter. You might be surprised to find that you’ve already used many of these features throughout the book. Here’s the list of features that DLR supports in order to accomplish its goals.

  • Hosting Application Programming Interfaces (APIs): In order to run dynamic language scripts, the host language must have access to the scripting engine. The Hosting APIs provide the support needed to host the dynamic language within the host environment through the scripting engine. This marshaling of code and data makes it possible to seamlessly integrate static and dynamic languages.
  • Extensions to Language Integrated Query (LINQ) ExpressionTree: Normally, a language would need to convert data, objects, and code into Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) before it could translate anything into another language. Because all .NET languages eventually end up as MSIL, MSIL is the common language for all higher-level .NET languages. These extensions make it possible for language compilers to create higher-level constructs for communication purposes, rather than always relying on MSIL. The result is that the marshaling process takes less time and the application runs faster.
  • DynamicSite: This feature provides a call-site cache that dynamic languages use in place of making constant calls to other .NET languages. Because the call-site cache is already in a form that the dynamic language can use, the overall speed of the dynamic language application improves.
  • IDynamicObject: An interface used to interact with dynamic objects directly. If you create a class that implements IDynamicObject, DLR lets the class perform the required conversions, rather than rely on the built-in functionality. Essentially, you create an object that can have methods, properties, and events added dynamically during run time. You use IDynamicObject when you want to implement custom behaviors in your class.
  • ActionBinder: The ActionBinder is a utility that helps support .NET interoperability. The ActionBinder is language specific. It ensures that conversions of variable data, return values, and arguments all follow language-specific behaviors so that the host language sees the data in a form it understands.

These are the main tasks that DLR performs. Of course, it also provides other compiler utilities that you need to know about. The final section in this chapter provides an overview of these other features.

DLR is a constantly changing technology today, so you’ll want to keep up with the additions and changes to DLR. One of the better places to find general DLR resources online is at http://blogs.msdn.com/ironpython/ archive/2008/03/16/dlr-resources.aspx. This chapter also provides a number of specific resources you can use to discover more about DLR. The point is to keep track of what’s going on with this exciting technology and review your code as things change.

Obtaining DLR

It’s important to remember that IronPython relies on DLR to perform just about every task that IronPython executes. Therefore, you already have access to a certain level of DLR, even if you don’t install anything or do anything special. In fact, you’re using DLR in the background every time you use IronPython. However, you’re using DLR without really knowing it exists and without understanding what DLR itself can do for your application. So while you can use the direct approach to DLR, it can prove frustrating and less than friendly.

In order to truly understand DLR, you at least need documentation. Better yet, you can download the entire DLR package and begin to understand the true impact of this product. If nothing else, spend some time viewing the available components at http://www.codeplex.com/dlr. The following sections describe various methods of gaining access to DLR so you can use it to perform some custom tasks.

Using the Direct Method

The direct method is the easiest way to obtain the benefits of DLR, but it’s also the most limited. You simply add a reference to the IronPython.DLL file located in the Program FilesIronPython 2.6 folder of your hard drive. This technique works fine for embedding IronPython scripts in your C# or Visual Basic.NET application. In fact, you gain access to the following classes:

  • IronPython
  • IronPython.Compiler
  • IronPython.Compiler.Ast
  • IronPython.Hosting
  • IronPython.Modules
  • IronPython.Runtime
  • IronPython.Runtime.Binding
  • IronPython.Runtime.Exceptions
  • IronPython.Runtime.Operations
  • IronPython.Runtime.Types

For many developers, this is all the DLR support you need, especially if your application only requires cross-language support through the Hosting APIs. (You’ll still want to download the documentation that’s available on the main DLR Web site — the section “Downloading the Documentation” later in this chapter explains how to perform this task.) The following steps describe how to add the required reference to gain access to these classes.

  1. Create the .NET project.
  2. Right-click References in Solution Explorer and choose Add Reference from the context menu. You see the Add Reference dialog box.
  3. Select the Browse tab and locate the IronPython.DLL file, as shown in Figure 14-1.
  4. Click OK. Visual Studio adds the required reference to your project.
Add the IronPython.DLL file to your project.
Figure 14-1: Add the IronPython.DLL file to your project.

You make use of IronPython.DLL as you would any other .NET assembly. Simply add the required use or Imports statement to your code. The examples throughout the book tell you about these requirements for the individual example.

Downloading the Full DLR

If you really want to experience DLR, you need the complete package. The full DLR consists of a number of components and even the source code weighs in at a hefty 10.5 MB.

Before you begin the download, check out the release notes at http://dlr.codeplex.com/ wikipage?title=0.92_release_notes for additional information about DLR. For example, you might decide to get an IronPython- or IronRuby-specific download. The full release includes both language products (which can be helpful, even if you use only one of them).

You obtain the full DLR from http://dlr.codeplex.com/Release/ProjectReleases .aspx?ReleaseId=34834. When you click the DLR-0.92-Src.zip link, you see a licensing dialog box. Click I Agree to begin the download process.

After the download completes, extract the resulting DLR-0.92-Src.ZIP file into its own folder. The resulting Codeplex-DLR-0.92 folder contains the following items.

  • License.HTML and License.RTF: You can read the same licensing information in two different formats. Use whichever form works best for you.
  • Docs: A folder containing the complete documentation for DLR. The best place to begin is the DLR-Overview.DOC file.
  • Samples: A folder containing a number of sample applications that demonstrate DLR features. There’s only one IronPython sample in the whole batch — you’ll find it in the Codeplex-DLR-0.92SamplesSilverlightAppPythonpython folder.
  • Source: A folder that contains the complete DLR source code that you need to compile in order to use DLR to create applications. This folder should be your first stop after you read the DLR-Overview.DOC file.

Building the Full DLR

Before you can use DLR, you must build it. The previous section explains how to download a copy of the DLR source. The following sections describe three methods you can use to build DLR. For most developers, the easiest and fastest method is the command line build. However, if you want to review the code before you use it, you might want to load the solution in Visual Studio and take a peek.

Performing a Command Line Build

The command line build option requires that you use the Visual Studio command line, not a standard command line (which doesn’t contain a path to the utilities you need). The following steps describe how to perform the command line build:

  1. Choose Start ➪ Programs ➪ Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 ➪ Visual Studio Tools ➪ Visual Studio 2008 Command Prompt or Start ➪ Programs ➪ Microsoft Visual Studio 2010 ➪ ➤ Visual Studio Tools ➪ Visual Studio Command Prompt (2010). You’ll see a command prompt.
  2. Type CD Codeplex-DLR-0.92Src and press Enter. This command places you in the DLR source code directory.
  3. Type MSBuild Codeplex-DLR.SLN (when using Visual Studio 2008) or MSBuild Codeplex-DLR-Dev10.SLN (when using Visual Studio 2010) and press Enter. By default, you get a debug build. Use the /p:Configuration=Release command line switch (as in MSBuild Codeplex-DLR.SLN /p:Configuration=Release or MSBuild Codeplex-DLR-Dev10.SLN /p:Configuration=Release) to obtain a release build. You see a lot of text appear onscreen as MSBuild creates the DLR DLLs for you. Some of the text will appear unreadable (Microsoft uses some odd color combinations). When the build process is complete, you should see 0 Error(s) as the output, along with a build time, as shown in Figure 14-2. (If you don’t see a 0 error output, you should probably download the files again because there is probably an error in the files you downloaded.)
The build process should show 0 Error(s) as the output message.
Figure 14-2: The build process should show 0 Error(s) as the output message.

Don’t look for the output in the source code folders. The output from the build process appears in the Codeplex-DLR-0.92Bin40 folder when working with Visual Studio 2010, no matter which technique you use to build DLR. Visual Studio 2008 developers will find their output in the Codeplex-DLR-0.92 BinDebug or Codeplex-DLR-0.92BinRelease folders, depending on the kind of build created. Visual Studio 2008 developers will also find a separate Codeplex-DLR-0.92BinSilverlight Debug or Codeplex-DLR-0.92Bin Silverlight Release folder for Silverlight use.

Performing a Visual Studio 2008 Build

Some developers will want to perform a build from within Visual Studio 2008. To perform this task, simply double-click the Codeplex-DLR.SLN icon in the Codeplex-DLR-0.92Src folder. Choose Build ➪ Build Solution or press Ctrl+Shift+B. You’ll see a series of messages in the Output window. When the process is complete, you should see, “Build: 23 succeeded or up-to-date, 0 failed, 1 skipped” as the output.

You must select each of the options in the Solution Configurations combo box in turn and perform a build to create a complete setup. Otherwise, you’ll end up with just the Release build or just the Debug build. If you need Silverlight or FxCop support, you must also create these builds individually.

Don’t worry if you see a number of messages stating

[code]
Project file contains ToolsVersion=”4.0”, which is not supported by this
version of MSBuild. Treating the project as if it had ToolsVersion=”3.5”.
[/code]

because this is normal when using Visual Studio 2008. You’ll also see a number of warning messages (a total of 59 for the current DLR build) in the Errors window, which you can ignore when using the current release.

Performing a Visual Studio 2010 Build

A release version of DLR will build better if you have a copy of Visual Studio 2010 on your system. To perform this task, simply double-click the Codeplex-DLR-Dev10.SLN icon in the Codeplex-DLR-0.92Src folder. Set the Solution Configurations option to Release or Debug as needed (there aren’t any options to build Silverlight or FxCop output). Choose Build ➪ Build Solution or press Ctrl+Shift+B. You’ll see a series of messages in the Output window. When the process is complete, you should see, “Build: 15 succeeded or up-to-date, 0 failed, 2 skipped” as the output. The Warnings tab of the Error List window should show 24 warnings.

Downloading the Documentation

The download you performed earlier provides code and documentation, but you might find that the documentation is outdated. As with everything else about DLR, the documentation is in a constant state of flux. If you want to use DLR directly, then you need the documentation found at http://dlr.codeplex.com/wikipage?title=Docs and specs&referringTitle=Home. Unfortunately, you have to download each document separately

Reporting Bugs and Other Issues

At some point, you’ll run into something that doesn’t work as expected. Of course, this problem even occurs with production code, but you’ll definitely run into problems when using the current release of DLR. In this case, check out the listing of issues at http://www.codeplex.com/dlr/WorkItem/List.aspx. If you don’t find an issue entry that matches the problem you’re experiencing, make sure you report the bug online so it gets fixed. Of course, reporting applies equally to code and documentation. Documentation errors are often harder to find and fix than coding errors — at least where developers are concerned — because it’s easier to see the coding error in many cases.

Working with Hosting APIs

In fact, you may have even wondered whether it’s possible to use IronPython as a scripting language for your next application. Fortunately, you can use IronPython as the scripting language for your next application by relying on the Hosting APIs. It turns out that a lot of people have considered IronPython an optimal language for the task. The following sections consider a number of Hosting API questions, such as how you can use it in an actual application, what the host application needs in order to use the Hosting APIs, and what you’d need to do to embed IronPython as a scripting language in an application.

Using the Hosting APIs

The DLR specification lists a number of hosting scenarios, such as operating on dynamic objects you create within C# or Visual Basic.NET applications. (See the section “Working with IDynamicObject” later in this chapter for details on dynamic objects in C# and Visual Basic.NET.) It’s also possible to use the Hosting APIs to create a scripting environment within Silverlight or other types of Web applications.

Whatever sort of host environment you create, you can use it to execute code snippets or entire applications found in files. The script run time can appear locally or within a remote application so you can use this functionality to create agent applications or scripting that relies on server support. The Hosting APIs make it possible to choose a specific scripting engine to execute the code or to let DLR choose the most appropriate scripting engine for the task. This second option might seem foolhardy, but it can actually let your code use the most recent scripting engine, even if that engine wasn’t available at the time you wrote the host environment code.

Chaos could result if you couldn’t control the extent (range) of the script execution in some way. For example, two developers could create variables with the same name in different areas of the application. The Hosting APIs make it possible to add scope to script execution. The scope acts much like a namespace does when writing code. Just as a namespace eliminates naming conflicts in assemblies, scoping eliminates them in the scripting environment. Executing the code within a scope also provides it with an execution context (controlled using a ScriptScope). Scopes are either public or private, with private scopes providing a measure of protection for the scripting environment. A script can also import scopes for use within the environment or require the host to support a certain scope to execute the script.

The Hosting APIs also provide support for other functionality. For example, you can employ reflection to obtain information about object members, obtain parameter information, and view documentation. You can also control how the scripting engine resolves file content when dynamic languages import code files.

Understanding the Hosting APIs Usage Levels

The DLR documentation specifies that most developers will use the Hosting APIs at one of three levels that are dictated by application requirements. Here are the three basic levels.

  • Basic code: The basic code level (Level 1 in the documentation) relies on a few basic types to execute code within scopes. The code can interact with variable bindings within those scopes.
  • Advanced code execution: The next level (Level 2 in the documentation) adds intermediate types that provide additional control over how code executes. In addition, this level supports using compiled code in various scopes and permits use of various code sources.
  • Support overrides: The final level (Level 3 in the documentation) provides methods to override how DLR resolves filenames. The application can also use custom source content readers, reflect over objects for design-time tool support, provide late bound variable values from the host, and use remote ScriptRuntime objects.

The concept of a ScriptRuntime object is central to working with the Hosting APIs. A host always begins a session by creating the ScriptRuntime object and then using that object to perform tasks. You can create a ScriptRuntime object using several methods. Of course, the easiest method is to use the standard constructor, which requires a ScriptRuntimeSetup object as input. It’s also possible to create a ScriptRuntime object using these methods

  • ScriptRuntime.CreateFromConfiguration(): A factory method that lets you use a preconfigured scope to create the ScriptRuntime object. In fact, this factor method is just short for new ScriptRuntime(ScriptRuntimeSetup.ReadConfiguration()).
  • ScriptRuntime.CreateRemote(): A factory method that helps you to create a ScriptRuntime object in another domain. The code must meet strict requirements to perform remote execution. See Section 4.1.3, “Create* Methods,” in the Hosting APIs specification for details.

At its name implies, a ScriptRuntimeSetup object gives a host full control over the ScriptRuntime object configuration. The ScriptRuntimeSetup object contains settings for debug mode, private execution, the host type, host arguments, and other setup features. Simply creating a ScriptRuntimeSetup object sets the defaults for executing a script. Once you use a ScriptRuntimeSetup object to create a ScriptRuntime object, you can’t change the settings — doing so will raise an exception.

The Hosting APIs actually support a number of objects that you use to create a scripting environment, load the code you want to execute, and control the execution process. The figure at http:// www.flickr.com/photos/john_lam/2220796647/ provides an overview of these objects and how you normally use them within the hosting session.

It’s important to isolate code during execution. The Hosting APIs provide three levels of isolation.

  • AppDomain: The highest isolation level, which affects the entire application. The AppDomain lets you execute code at different trust levels, and load and unload code as needed.
  • ScriptRuntime: Every AppDomain can have multiple ScriptRuntimes within it. Each ScriptRuntime object can have different name bindings, use different .NET assemblies, have different settings (one can be in debug mode, while another might not), and provide other settings and options support.
  • ScriptScope: Every ScriptRuntime can contain multiple ScriptScopes. A ScriptScope can provide variable binding isolation. In addition, you can use a ScriptScope to give executable code specific permissions.

Now that you have a better idea of how the pieces fit together, it’s important to consider which pieces you use to embed scripting support within an application. Generally, if you want basic code (Level 1) support, all you need are the objects shown in green at http://www.flickr.com/photos/ john_lam/2220796647/. In fact, if you want to use the default ScriptScope settings, all you really need to do is create the ScriptRuntime and then use the default ScriptScope.

Considering the Host Application

A host has to meet specific requirements before it can run IronPython as a scripting language. Chapter 15 discusses more of the details for C# and Visual Basic.NET developers. You’ll find that C# and Visual Basic.NET provide everything you need. However, it’s interesting to see just what the requirements are, especially if you’re using an older version of these languages. Section 3 of the DLR-Spec-Hosting.DOC file found in the Codeplex-DLR-0.92Docs folder contains complete information about the hosting requirements. Section 3.3 (and associated subsections) are especially important for most developers to read if they plan to use the Hosting APIs for anything special.

Embedding IronPython as a Scripting Language

Imagine that you’ve created a custom editor in your application where users can write IronPython scripts. They then save the script to disk (or you could read it from memory), and then they assign the script to a button or menu in your application. When the user selects the button or menu, your application executes the script. Creating this scenario isn’t as hard as you might imagine. DLR comes with most of the functionality you need built in.

Of course, you need a test script to start. Listing 14-1 shows the test script for this example. The example is purposely simple so that the example doesn’t become more focused on the IronPython code than the code that executes it. However, you could easily use any script you want as long as it’s a legitimate IronPython script.

Listin g 14-1: A simple IronPython script to execute

[code]
# A simple function call.
def mult(a, b):
return a * b
# Create a variable to hold the output.
Output = mult(5,10)
# Display the output.
print(‘5 * 10 =’),
print(Output)
# Pause after the debug session.
raw_input(‘nPress any key to continue…’)
[/code]

In this case, the example has a simple function, mult(), that multiplies two numbers together. The __main__() part of the script multiplies two numbers and displays the result using the print() function. In short, the script isn’t very complicated.

Now that you have a script, you need to create an application to execute it. The example is a simple console application. In order to create the IronPython ScriptRuntime object, you need access to some of the IronPython assemblies. Right-click References in Solution Explorer and choose Add Reference from the context menu. You see the Add Reference dialog box shown in Figure 14-3. Ctrl+click each of the entries shown in Figure 14-3, then click OK to add them to your project.

Add the required references from your IronPython setup.
Figure 14-3: Add the required references from your IronPython setup.

The example also requires that you add using statements for a number of the assemblies. Here are the using statements that you must add for this example.

[code]
using System;
using IronPython.Hosting;
using IronPython.Runtime;
using Microsoft.Scripting.Hosting;
[/code]

Now that the console project is set up, you can begin coding it. This example is very simple, but it actually works. You can execute an IronPython script using this technique. Of course, you can’t interact with it much. Chapter 15 provides more detailed examples, but this example is a good starting place. Listing 14-2 shows the minimum code you need to execute an IronPython script and display the result of executing it onscreen.

Listin g 14-2: Executing the IronPython script

[code]
static void Main(string[] args)
{
// Create an IronPython ScriptRuntime.
ScriptRuntime Runtime = IronPython.Hosting.Python.CreateRuntime();
// Execute the script file and return scope information about
// the task.
ScriptScope Scope = Runtime.ExecuteFile(“Test.py”);
// Display the name of the file executed.
Console.WriteLine(“rnExecuted {0}“,
Scope.GetVariable<string>(“__name__“));
// Keep the output visible.
Console.WriteLine(“rnPress any key…”);
Console.ReadLine();
}
[/code]

The code begins by creating the ScriptRuntime object, Runtime. Notice that you create this object by directly accessing the IronPython assemblies, rather than the DLR assemblies. There are many ways to accomplish this task, but using the technique shown is the simplest. The Runtime object contains default settings for everything. For example, this ScriptRuntime doesn’t provide debugging capability. Consequently, this technique is only useful when you have a debugged script to work with and may not do everything needed in a production environment where you let users execute their own scripts as part of an application.

The Runtime.ExecuteFile() method is just one of several ways to execute a script. You use it when a script appears in a file on disk, as is the case for this example. When you call the Runtime .ExecuteFile() method, your application actually calls on the IronPython interpreter to execute the code. The output from the script appears in Figure 14-4. As you can see, the code executes as you expect without any interference from the host. In fact, you can’t even tell that the application has a host.

The script output appears as you might expect.
Figure 14-4: The script output appears as you might expect.

When the Runtime.ExecuteFile() method call returns, the C# application that executed the script receives a ScriptScope object that it can use to interact with the application in various ways. This ScriptScope object, like the ScriptRuntime object, contains all the usual defaults. It’s a good idea to examine both Runtime and Scope in the debugger to see what these objects contain because you’ll find useful information in both.

The script is running in a host application. In fact, they share the same console window. To show how this works, the example writes output to the console window. It retrieves the __name__ property from Scope and displays it onscreen with the message, as shown in Figure 14-5. The point of this example is that the IronPython script truly is hosted and not running on its own. The technique shown here lets you perform simple interactions between C# or Visual Basic.NET and IronPython.

The output shows that the host and the IronPython environment share the same console.
Figure 14-5: The output shows that the host and the IronPython environment share the same console.

Understanding the Extensions to LINQ Expression Tree

Part of the premise behind DLR is that every .NET language eventually ends up in Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) form. Whether you use C# or Visual Basic.NET, or even managed C++, the output from the compiler is MSIL. That’s how the various languages can get along. They rely on MSIL as an intermediary so that managed languages can work together.

The problem with compiling everything to MSIL is that MSIL doesn’t necessarily perform tasks quickly or easily when working with dynamic languages such as IronPython. It would be far easier if there were a mechanism for translating the code directly into something that C# or Visual Basic .NET could use. That’s where the LINQ Expression Tree (ET) comes into play. A LINQ ET can represent IronPython or other code (such as JavaScript) in a tree form that DLR can then translate into something that C# or Visual Basic.NET can understand. The result is a DLR tree that presents the code in an easily analyzable and mutable form. The example at http://blogs.msdn.com/hugunin/ archive/2007/05/15/dlr-trees-part-1.aspx explains how DRL trees work graphically. In this case, the author explains how a DLR tree can represent a JavaScript application — the same technique also applies to IronPython.

The LINQ ET originally appeared in the .NET Framework 3.5. In its original form, Microsoft used the LINQ ET to model LINQ expressions written in C# and Visual Basic.NET. In the .NET Framework 4.0, Microsoft added extensions for a number of reasons. For the purposes of this book, the most important reason to extend LINQ ETs is to accommodate the DLR semantics used to translate IronPython code into something that C# and Visual Basic.NET can understand.

DLR trees work in the background. It’s helpful to know they exist, but you generally won’t worry about them when working with IronPython so this section is short. However, let’s say you want to create a scripting language for your application that isn’t as complex as IronPython. Perhaps you want to implement an editor and everything that goes with it in your application. In this case, you may very well want to work with DLR trees. The examples found at http://weblogs.asp.net/ podwysocki/archive/2008/02/08/adventures-in-compilers-building-on-the-dlr.aspx show what you need to do to create your own language compiler. Once you have a compiler like this built, you could execute the code using a technique similar to the one shown in Listing 14-2.

It’s important to consider one word of warning, however, when working with the current version of DLR trees. As you scan through the specification, you’ll find that the authors have left behind copious notes about issues that aren’t resolved now or features that were left out of the current implementation due to a lack of time. The result is conversations such as the one at http://stackoverflow.com/ questions/250377/are-linq-expression-trees-turing-complete. If you look at section 2.4.1 of the specification, you find that a higher-level looping mechanism was indeed cut, but Microsoft is aware of the problem and plans to implement the feature in the future. In short, DLR trees have limits that you need to consider before implementing them in your application.

Considering DynamicSite

When working with a static language such as C# or Visual Basic.NET, the compiler knows what to emit in the form of MSIL based on the code the developer provides. However, dynamic code isn’t static — it can change based on any of a number of factors. One problem with dynamic languages is that DLR doesn’t always know what to emit during compile time because the real time event hasn’t occurred yet. Of course, the static language still needs some code in place because static languages need to know what to do at compile time. This seeming conundrum is handled by invoking a DynamicSite object. Using a DynamicSite object means that the static language knows what to call at compile time and DLR can fill the DynamicSite object with executable code during run time.

As with many parts of DLR, the action takes place behind the scenes — you don’t even know it occurs. However, it’s useful to know what happens so you at least know what to suspect when an error occurs. The act of invoking the DynamicSite method creates an operation to perform and a delegate. The delegate contains caching logic that is updated every time the arguments change. In short, as the dynamic language changes, DLR generates events that change the content of the cache as well.

At the center of working with DynamicSite is the UpdateBindingAndInvoke() method. The first time that application code calls the DynamicSite object, the UpdateBindingAndInvoke() method queries the arguments for the specified code. For example, the code might be something simple such as x + y, so the query would request the types of x and y. At this point, UpdateBindingAndInvoke() generates a delegate that contains the implementation of the code.

The next time the application invokes the DynamicSite object, the delegate checks the arguments in the call against those in the cache. If the argument types match, then the delegate simply uses the current implementation of the code. However, if the arguments are different, then the delegate calls UpdateBindingAndInvoke(), which creates a new delegate that contains a definition of the new code with the updated arguments. The new delegate contains checks for both sets of argument types and calls the appropriate implementation based on the arguments it receives. Of course, if none of the argument sets match the call, then the process starts over again with a call to UpdateBindingAndInvoke().

Working with IDynamicObject

This section discusses the IDynamicObject interface provided as part of DLR, which doesn’t affect IronPython directly, but could affect how you use other languages to interact with IronPython. You can easily skip this section and leave it for later reading if you plan to work exclusively with IronPython for the time being. This is a very short discussion of the topic that is meant to fill in the information you have about DLR and its use with IronPython.

As mentioned throughout the book, C# and Visual Basic.NET are both static languages. Microsoft doesn’t appear to have any desire to change this situation in upcoming versions of either language. Consequently, you can’t create dynamic types using C# or Visual Basic. There isn’t any technique for defining missing methods or dynamic classes using either language. However, you can consume dynamic types defined using a new interface, IDynamicObject.

The IDynamicObject interface tells DLR that the class knows how to dispatch operations on itself. In some respects, IDynamicInterface is a kind of managed form of the IQueryable interface that C++ developers use when creating COM objects. The concept isn’t new, but the implementation of it in the .NET environment is new.

There are many levels of complexity that you can build into your dynamic implementation. The example in this section is a very simple shell that you can build on when creating a fullfledged application. It’s designed to show a common implementation that you might use in an application. You can see another simple example at http://blogs.msdn.com/csharpfaq/ archive/2009/10/19/dynamic-in-c-4-0-creating-wrappers-with-dynamicobject.aspx.

The starting point for this example is a class that implements DynamicObject. In order to create such a class, you need to include the following using statements:

[code]
using System;
using System.Dynamic;
[/code]

The class is called ADynamicObject and appears in Listing 14-3.

Listin g 14-3: Creating a class to handle dynamic objects

[code]
// Any dynamic object you create must implement IDynamicObject.
public class ADynamicObject : DynamicObject
{
// Calls a method provided with the dynamic object.
public override bool TryInvokeMember(InvokeMemberBinder binder,
object[] args, out object result)
{
Console.WriteLine(“InvokeMember of method {0}.”, binder.Name);
if (args.Length > 0)
{
Console.WriteLine(“tMethod call has {0} arguments.”, args.Length);
for (int i = 0; i < args.Length; i++)
Console.WriteLine(“ttArgument {0} is {1}.”, i, args[i]);
}
result = binder.Name;
return true;
}
// Gets the property value.
public override bool TryGetMember(GetMemberBinder binder,
out object result)
{
Console.WriteLine(“GetMember of property {0}.”, binder.Name);
result = binder.Name;
return true;
}
// Sets the property value.
public override bool TrySetMember(SetMemberBinder binder, object value)
Console.WriteLine(“SetMember of property {0} to {1}.”,
binder.Name, value);
return true;
}
}
[/code]

In this case, the code provides the ability to call methods, get property values, and set property values. Amazingly, DLR automatically calls the correct method without any hints from you.

Notice that each of the methods uses a different binder class: InvokeMemberBinder, GetMemberBinder, or SetMemberBinder as needed. The binder provides you with information about the member of interest. In most cases, you use the member name to locate the member within the dynamic object. In this case, the code simply displays the member name onscreen so you can see that the code called the correct member.

Two of these methods, TryInvokeMember() and TryGetMember(), return something to the caller. It’s important to remember that the data is marshaled, so you must use the out keyword for the argument that returns a value or the application will complain later (the compiler may very well accept the error without comment). In both cases, the code simply returns the binder.Name value. If you were building this dynamic object class for an application, you’d use the binder.Name value to access the actual property or method.

When invoking a method, the TryInvokeMember() method receives an array of arguments to use with the method call. The code shows how you detect the presence of arguments and then displays them onscreen for this example. In an actual application, you’d need to compare the arguments provided by the caller against those required by the method to ensure the caller has supplied enough arguments of the right type.

All three methods return true. If the code were to return false instead, you’d see a RuntimeBinderException in the caller code. This exception tells the caller that the requested method or property doesn’t exist.

When a C# application desires to create a dynamic object, it simply creates an instance of the dynamic class. The instance can create properties, methods, or other constructs as needed. Listing 14-4 shows an example of how a test application might appear.

Listin g 14-4: Using the ADynamicObject class

[code]
class Test
{
static void Main()
{
// Create a new dynamic object.
dynamic DynObject = new ADynamicObject();
// Set a property to a specific value.
Console.WriteLine(“Setting a Property to a Value”);
DynObject.AProp = 5;
// Use one property to set another property.
// You would see a property get, followed by a property set.
Console.WriteLine(“rnSetting a Property to another Property”);
DynObject.Prop1 = DynObject.AProp;
// Call a method and set its output to a property.
// You would see a method call, followed by a property set.
Console.WriteLine(“rnSetting a Property to a Method Output”);
DynObject.Prop2 = DynObject.AMethod();
// Call a method with a property argument and set a new property.
// You would see a property get, a method call, and finally a
// property set.
Console.WriteLine(“rnSetting a Property to Method Output with Args”);
DynObject.Prop3 = DynObject.AMethod(DynObject.AProp);
// Wait to see the results.
Console.WriteLine(“rnPress any key when ready…”);
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
[/code]

Notice that the code begins by creating a new dynamic object using the dynamic keyword. At this point, you can begin adding properties and methods to the resulting DynObject. Properties can receive values directly, from other properties, or from methods. Methods can use arguments to change their output. Figure 14-6 shows the output from this example. The path that the code takes through the various objects helps you understand how dynamic objects work.

The DynamicObject class actually provides support for a number of members. You can use these members to provide a complete dynamic implementation for your application. Here’s a list of the DynamicObject members you can override.

  • GetDynamicMemberNames()
  • GetMetaObject()
  • TryBinaryOperation()
  • TryConvert()
  • TryDeleteIndex()
  • TryDeleteMember()
  • TryGetIndex()
  • TryGetMember()
  • TryInvoke()
  • TryInvokeMember()
  • TrySetIndex()
  • TrySetMember()
  • TryUnaryOperation()
The output shows the process used to work with dynamic objects.
Figure 14-6: The output shows the process used to work with dynamic objects.

The point of all this is that you can implement a kind of dynamic object strategy for static languages, but it’s cumbersome compared to IronPython. You might use this approach when you need to provide a dynamic strategy for something small within C# or Visual Basic. This technique is also useful for understanding how IronPython works, at a very basic level. IronPython is far more robust than the code shown in this example, but the theory is the same.

Understanding the ActionBinder

DLR makes it possible to invoke dynamic code from within a static environment using a DynamicSite object. The actual process for creating the method invocation call is to create an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST). The AST has functions assigned to it using an Assign() method. When DLR wants to assign a new function to AST, it supplies a function name and provides a calling syntax using the Call() method. The Call() method accepts four arguments.

  • An object used to hold the function. Normally, the code calls the Create() method of the host class using GetMethod(“Create”).
  • A constant containing the name of the function as it appears within the host object.
  • The array of arguments supplied to the function.
  • A delegate instance used to invoke the code later. It’s this argument that you consider when working with an ActionBinder.

At this point, you have an object that holds the parameters of the function call, as well as a delegate used to execute the function. The problem now is one of determining how to call the function. After all, the rest of your code knows nothing about the delegate if you create it during run time, as is the case when working with dynamic languages. If none of the code knows about the delegate, there must be some way to call it other than directly.

To make rules work, your code has to include a GetRule() method that returns a StandardRule object. Inside GetRule() is a switch that selects an action based on the kind of action that DLR requests, such as a call (DynamicActionKind.Call). When DLR makes this request, the code creates a StandardRule object that contains an ActionBinder. The ActionBinder determines what kind of action the call performs. For example, you might decide that the ActionBinder should be LanguageContext.Binder, which defines a language context for the function. The language context is a definition of the language’s properties, such as its name, identifier, version, and specialized features. (You can learn more about how a language context works at http://www.dotnetguru .org/us/dlrus/DLR2.htm.) The code then calls SetCallRule() with the StandardRule object, the ActionBinder, and a list of arguments for the function.

Now, here’s the important consideration for this section. The ActionBinder is actually part of the language design. If you wanted to create a new language, then part of the design process is to design an ActionBinder for it. The ActionBinder performs an immense amount of work. For example, a call to ActionBinder.ConvertExpression() provides conversion information about the data types that the language supports. Of course, IronPython already performs this task for you, but it’s important to know how things work under the hood in case you encounter problems.

Understanding the Other DLR Features

DLR is a moving target at the time of this writing. The latest release, 0.92, isn’t even considered production code as of yet. Consequently, you might find that the version of DLR that you use has features not described in this chapter because they weren’t available at the time of this writing.

An ExpandoObject is a dynamic property bag. Essentially, you fill it with data you want to move from one language to another. It works just like any other property bag you’ve used in the past. Because the ExpandoObject class implements IDynamicMetaObjectProvider, you can use it with dynamic languages such as IronPython. You use this object when moving data from C# or Visual Basic.NET to IronPython.

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